The writings of medievalists such as Jean Favier trace the existence of economic warfare back to the Middle Ages.[1]. To fully understand the close and necessary links between economic warfare and data protection, let us consider the following definition of economic warfare, given by Éric Bosserelle: "Economic warfare is understood as a set of practices implemented by companies and states motivated by the pursuit of power in the economic sphere"[2]
The same applies to the concept of data protection, which is understood here in accordance with the definition given by the European Data Protection Supervisor: "Data protection consists of protecting any information concerning an identified or identifiable natural person (living)."
But how does the protection of personal data, which stems from the concept of privacy that is accepted very differently from one country to another, relate to economic warfare?
The answer lies in analyzing the economic issues related to data protection, but also in implementing various strategies in this area.
The economic challenges of data protection
Personal data is valuable, and its value is not limited to the commercial sphere. In addition to its financial value, personal data represents a wealth of information that is essential in modern economic warfare. The entry into force of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in 2018, followed by various European Union standards, clearly demonstrates that data protection is essential in a globalized and complex economy. Without delving into the legal framework, studying experience and history helps us understand the importance of personal data in economic warfare. The example of Cambridge Analytica[3] is telling. Or, more pragmatically, the massive data thefts from hospitals and universities around the world demonstrate the value of collecting personal data. In addition to the direct consequences for the individuals concerned, this creates a climate of mistrust towards companies, administrations, and ultimately the state of a country, which are accused of being unable to effectively defend the data and privacy of their customers, patients, or citizens, and therefore their sovereignty.
Last but not least, the Latin phrase Scientia potentia est (knowledge is power) has never been more relevant than in this era of targeted marketing and mass collection of personal data through cookies and other trackers. There is no better way to promote a business than to give it the means to effectively target its audience. Thus, economic warfare is waged through the protection and collection of personal data, ipso facto causing conflicts between different views on the subject.
Different strategies and visions for personal data protection in economic warfare
The entry into force of the GDPR showed that the world was divided into several blocs when it came to the management of personal data and its role in economic warfare. The Snowden revelations, the Cambridge Analytica scandal, and the various positions taken on TikTok are further examples of this. The American and Sino-Russian blocs are focused on data collection in the broadest sense. This is for economic and geopolitical reasons and to exert influence outside their sphere of action. By collecting data on citizens, users, or targeted individuals within companies and administrations, states have multiple means of exerting pressure or influence. The European Union has provided a regulatory balance to impose its pace in this great economic and diplomatic game with the GDPR. This allows it to constrain companies and administrations around the world whenever a European citizen is involved in any way. In addition to this ability to constrain companies around the world, it is also a communication argument for European players. Indeed, being able to claim that you respect the personal data of a service's users is now a source of trust and therefore economic profitability. So much so that many countries have chosen to implement legislation that is more or less similar—or compatible—with the GDPR. This is a fine example of economic warfare using the legal arsenal surrounding data protection.
The tree that hides the forest: Internet governance
Data protection is one of several issues that actively contribute to conflicts over Internet governance, as explained above. The case of TikTok is the most explicit example for understanding this issue. Questions surrounding the Chinese app around the world demonstrate the strong links between data protection and economic warfare. Several countries have banned it on their territory (India, Somalia, Nepal, etc.) and others have restricted its use, notably preventing public officials from downloading the app on work devices (Australia, New Zealand, Taiwan, etc.). The app is accused of disrupting the cognitive functioning of people who spend a lot of time on it, as well as collecting mountains of personal data and spying on users and their friends and family. It is a formidable weapon in the context of economic warfare, with China demonstrating its desire to expand its market and its position a little more every day. Issues related to this app in particular—other examples exist, such as the recent case of Telegram—make it clear that data collection is an effective way to shape the internet and its possible uses in China's image. TikTok's influence among young people is a power that China can use to spread false information or political ideas that are favorable to it. As Sun Tzu said in his eminent Art of War: "Know your enemy and know yourself; even if you have to fight a hundred wars, you will be victorious a hundred times."
[1] Papal Finances during the Great Western Schism, 1378-1409, Paris, Jean Favier, 1966
[2] Bosserelle, Éric. "Economic warfare: a modern form of warfare?" Revue Française de Socio-Économie, vol. 8, no. 2, 2011,
[3] William Audureau, “What you need to know about Cambridge Analytica, the company at the heart of the Facebook scandal,” Le Monde, March 22, 2018
